Hafnium metal production
By-product processing of zirconium ores is where hafnium production begins. It is worth considering that the metal is subject to oxidation when exposed to high temperatures. Further processing of the material and production of billets depends to a large extent on the use: pure, as an alloy, or as an alloying additive.
Smelting in an arc furnace
Smelting of hafnium can be done in a vacuum arc furnace using direct or alternating current. For the stable combustion of the arc, it is necessary to exclude the formation of side arcs between the electrode and the wall of the crystallizer. The arc length (20-35 mm) must not exceed the size of the gap between cathode and mold wall Arc melting gives ingots of high brittleness because impurities are released at the grain boundary: oxides, carbides, nitrides.
Electron-beam melting
If hafnium is initially melted in an electron-beam furnace, the content of impurities decreases. However, ingots after electron-beam refining smelting have a coarse-crystalline structure. Therefore, after electron-beam melting ingots are remelted in an arc furnace. Small amounts of zirconium or niobium carbides are added to refine grains during arc smelting.
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